employer should be held vicariously liable for a tort committed by his employee to
be on the move. There have been no changes in societal conditions which require
such a development. The changes in the case law relating to the definition of the
circumstances in which an employer is vicariously liable for the tort of his employee
have not been made in response to changing social conditions. Rather they have
been prompted by the aim of producing a fairer and more workable test.
Unsurprisingly, this basic aim has remained constant. The Salmond test defined a
wrongful act by a servant in the course of his employment as “either (a) a wrongful
act authorised by the master or (b) a wrongful and unauthorised mode of doing some
act authorised by the master”: Salmond, Law of Torts, 1st ed (1907), p 83; and
Salmond & Heuston on the Law of Torts, 21st ed (1996), p 443. As Lord Steyn said
in Lister at para 20, this was “simply a practical test serving as a dividing line
between cases where it is or is not just to impose vicarious liability” (emphasis
added). The importance of Lister (and the Canadian case of Bazley v Curry (1999)
174 DLR (4th) 45 whose reasoning it adopted) is that it recognised the difficulty
created by the second limb of the Salmond test. This was not effective for
determining the circumstances in which it was just to hold an employer vicariously
liable for committing an act not authorised by the employer. The close connection
test was introduced in order to remedy this shortcoming. This improvement was
achieved by the simple expedient of explicitly incorporating the concept of justice
into the close connection test. The new test was, therefore, by definition more
effective than the Salmond test for determining the circumstances in which it is just
to hold an employer vicariously liable for the unauthorised acts of his employee.
Hilary Term
[2016] UKSC 11
On appeal from: [2014] EWCA Civ 116
JUDGMENT
Mr A M Mohamud (in substitution for Mr A
Mohamud (deceased)) (Appellant) v WM Morrison
Supermarkets plc (Respondent)
before
Lord Neuberger, President
Lady Hale, Deputy President
Lord Dyson
Lord Reed
Lord Toulson
JUDGMENT GIVEN ON
2 March 2016
Indian Citation : AIR 2016 IC 75
LORD TOULSON: (with whom Lord Neuberger, Lady Hale, Lord Dyson
and Lord Reed agree)
1. Vicarious liability in tort requires, first, a relationship between the defendant
and the wrongdoer, and secondly, a connection between that relationship and the
wrongdoer’s act or default, such as to make it just that the defendant should be held
legally responsible to the claimant for the consequences of the wrongdoer’s conduct.
In this case the wrongdoer was employed by the defendant, and so there is no issue
about the first requirement. The issue in the appeal is whether there was sufficient
connection between the wrongdoer’s employment and his conduct towards the
claimant to make the defendant legally responsible. By contrast, the case of Cox v
Ministry of Justice [2016] UKSC 10, which was heard by the same division of the
court at the same time, is concerned with the first requirement. The judgments are
separate because the claims and issues are separate, but they are intended to be
complementary to each other in their legal analysis. In preparing this judgment I
have had the benefit of Lord Reed’s judgment in Cox, and I agree fully with his
reasoning and conclusion.
2. The question in this appeal concerns an employer’s vicarious liability in tort
for an assault carried out by an employee. It is a subject which has troubled the
courts on numerous occasions and the case law is not entirely consistent. In
addressing the issues which it raises, it will be necessary to examine how the law in
this area has developed, what stage it has reached and whether it is in need of
significant change.
Facts
3. In this case the victim was a customer. I will call him the claimant although
he sadly died from an illness unrelated to his claim before his appeal was heard by
this court. The respondent company is a well known operator of a chain of
supermarkets. It has premises in Small Heath, Birmingham, which include a petrol
station. The petrol station has a kiosk with the usual display of goods and a counter
where customers pay for their purchases. One of the company’s employees was Mr
Amjid Khan. His job was to see that the petrol pumps and the kiosk were kept in
good running order and to serve customers.
4. The claimant was of Somali origin. On the morning of 15 March 2008 he was
on his way to take part with other members of his community in an event in London.
While he was at the petrol station he decided to inquire whether it would be possible
to print some documents from a USB stick which he was carrying.Page 3
5. The trial judge, Mr Recorder Khangure QC, accepted in full the claimant’s
account of what followed. The claimant went into the kiosk and explained to the
staff what he wanted. There were two or three staff present. Mr Khan, who was
behind the counter, replied by saying “We don’t do such shit”. The claimant
protested at being spoken to in that manner. Using foul, racist and threatening
language, Mr Khan ordered the claimant to leave. The claimant walked out of the
kiosk and returned to his car by the air pump. He was followed by Mr Khan. The
claimant got into his car and switched on the engine, but before he could drive off
Mr Khan opened the front passenger door and told him in threatening words never
to come back. The claimant told Mr Khan to get out of the car and shut the passenger
door. Instead, Mr Khan punched the claimant on his left temple, causing him pain
and shock. The claimant switched off the engine and got out in order to walk round
and close the passenger door. At this point Mr Khan again punched him in the head,
knocked him to the floor and subjected him to a serious attack, involving punches
and kicks, while the claimant lay curled up on the petrol station forecourt, trying to
protect his head from the blows. In carrying out the attack Mr Khan ignored
instructions from his supervisor, who came on the scene at some stage and tried to
stop Mr Khan from behaving as he did. The judge concluded that the reasons for Mr
Khan’s behaviour were a matter of speculation. The claimant himself had said and
done nothing which could be considered abusive or aggressive.
The trial judge’s decision
6. In a detailed and impressive judgment, the judge reviewed the principal
authorities. He expressed great sympathy for the claimant but concluded that the
company was not vicariously liable for Mr Khan’s unprovoked assault. His principal
reason was that although Mr Khan’s job involved some interaction with customers
and members of the public who attended the kiosk, it involved nothing more than
serving and helping them. There was not a sufficiently close connection between
what he was employed to do and his tortious conduct for his employer to be held
vicariously liable, applying the “close connection” test laid down in Lister v Hesley
Hall Ltd [2001] UKHL 22; [2001] 1 AC 215 and followed in later cases including
Dubai Aluminium Co Ltd v Salaam [2002] UKHL 48; [2003] 2 AC 366. A further
reason given by the judge was that Mr Khan made a positive decision to come out
from behind the counter and follow the claimant out of the kiosk in contravention
of instructions given to him.
The Court of Appeal’s decision
7. The Court of Appeal (Arden, Treacy and Christopher Clarke LJJ) upheld the
judge’s decision that the claim against the company failed the “close connection”
test. The main points made in the judgments were that Mr Khan’s duties were
circumscribed. He was not given duties involving a clear possibility of confrontation Page 4
or placed in a situation where an outbreak of violence was likely. The fact that his
employment involved interaction with customers was not enough to make his
employers liable for his use of violence towards the claimant.
8. Christopher Clarke LJ added that if the question had been simply whether it
would be fair and just for the company to be required to compensate the claimant
for his injuries from the assault, there would be strong grounds for saying that it
should. The assault arose out of an interchange which began when the claimant
asked to be supplied with a service which he thought the company could provide.
Mr Khan, whose job it was to deal with such a request, followed up his refusal with
an apparently motiveless attack on the customer, who was in no way at fault. The
customer was entitled to expect a polite response. Instead he was struck on the head
and kicked when on the ground. In those circumstances it could be said that the
employer could fairly be expected to bear the cost of compensation, rather than that
the victim should be left without any civil remedy except against an assailant who
was unlikely to be able to pay full compensation. However, he concluded that this
was not the legal test, and that the fact that Mr Khan’s job involved interaction with
the public did not provide the degree of connection between his employment and
the assault which was necessary for the employer to be held vicariously liable.
Christopher Clarke LJ said that he was attracted for a time by the proposition that
the assault could be looked at as a perverse execution of Mr Khan’s duty to engage
with customers, but he considered that such an approach parted company with
reality.
Grounds of appeal
9. In this court the claimant’s primary argument was that the time has come for
a new test of vicarious liability. In place of the “close connection” test the courts
should apply a broader test of “representative capacity”. In the case of a tort
committed by an employee, the decisive question should be whether a reasonable
observer would consider the employee to be acting in the capacity of a representative
of the employer at the time of committing the tort. A company should be liable for
the acts of its human embodiment. In the present case, Mr Khan was the company’s
employed representative in dealing with a customer. What mattered was not just the
closeness of the connection between his duties to his employer and his tortious
conduct, but the setting which the employer had created. The employer created the
setting by putting the employee into contact and close physical proximity with the
claimant. Alternatively, it was argued that the claimant should in any event have
succeeded because he was a lawful visitor to the premises and Mr Khan was acting
within the field of activities assigned to him in dealing with the claimant.Page 5
Origins and development of vicarious liability
10. The development of the doctrine of vicarious liability can be traced to a
number of factors; in part to legal theories, of which there have been several; in part
to changes in the structure and size of economic and other (eg charitable) enterprises;
and in part to changes in social attitudes and the courts’ sense of justice and fairness,
particularly when faced with new problems such as cases of sexual abuse of children
by people in a position of authority.
11. According to Holdsworth’s A History of English Law (1908) (vol 3, pp 383-
387) in medieval times the general principle was that a master was only liable at
civil law for misdeeds of his servants if done by his command and consent. “It would
be against all reason”, said counsel in the reign of Henry IV, “to impute blame or
default to a man, when he has none in him, for the carelessness of his servants cannot
be said to be his act” (YB 2 Hy IV Pasch pl 5). But there were some exceptions,
which today would be classed as instances of non-delegable duty. Liability for
damage by fire was an example. The law imposed on house holders a duty to keep
their fires from damaging their neighbours. If a fire was caused by a servant or guest,
and it damaged a neighbour’s house, the owner was liable. He could escape liability
only by showing that the fire originated from the act of a stranger (YB 2 Hy IV
Pasch pl 6).
12. The 17th century was a century of expansion of commerce and industry, and
vicarious liability began to be broadened. Holt CJ was particularly influential in this
development. In Boson v Sandford (1691) 2 Salk 440 a shipper of goods sued the
ship owner for damage caused by the negligence of the master. Eyre J held that there
was no difference between a land carrier and a water carrier, and therefore the
owners were under a special liability as carriers for the acts of their servants; but
Holt CJ rested his judgment on the broad principle that “whoever employs another
is answerable for him, and undertakes for his care to all that make use of him”. (The
action failed on a technical pleading point.)
13. In Tuberville v Stamp (1698) 1 Ld Raym 264, Skinner 681, SC Comb 459,
the plaintiff complained that the defendant’s servant lit a fire on heath land which
destroyed the heath growing on the plaintiff’s land. The majority of the judges held
that the plaintiff had a cause of action under the medieval rule about liability for fire;
but Holt CJ doubted whether that rule applied to fires other than in houses, and he
based liability (according to the report in Comb.) on the broader ground that “if my
servant doth anything prejudicial to another, it shall bind me, when it may be
presumed that he acts by my authority, being about my business”.Page 6
14. Holt CJ did not confine this principle to cases of negligence. In Hern v
Nichols (1700) 1 Salk 289, the plaintiff brought an action on the case for deceit,
alleging that he bought several parcels of silk under a fraudulent representation by
the defendant’s factor that it was another kind of silk. The factor was operating
overseas and there was no evidence of deceit on the part of the defendant personally.
Holt CJ held that the defendant was nevertheless liable “for seeing somebody must
be a loser by this deceit, it is more reason that he that employs and puts a trust and
confidence in a deceiver should be a loser, than a stranger”.
15. Holt CJ gave the same explanation for the development of the principle in Sir
Robert Wayland’s Case (1706) 3 Salk 234, “the master at his peril ought to take care
what servant he employs; and it is more reasonable that he should suffer for the
cheats of his servant than strangers and tradesmen”.
16. Holt CJ also held that for the master to be liable the servant’s act had to be
within the area of the authority given to him: Middleton v Fowler (1699) 1 Salk 282.
17. Holdsworth noted that the first case in which the modern principle can begin
to be seen was the admiralty case of Boson v Sandford, and he considered it not
unlikely that necessities arising from the demands of the commercial world, and the
influence of Roman law on the admiralty courts, led to the introduction of ideas
which then permeated to the common law courts (vol 8, p 476). He also observed
that this was only one of the influences and that a number of reasons were put
forward to explain the basis of vicarious liability. These he summarised as follows
(at p 477):
“It was sometimes put on the ground that the master by
implication undertakes to answer for his servant’s tort - which is
clearly not true. Sometimes it was put on the ground that the
servant had an implied authority so to act - which again is clearly
not true. Sometimes it was grounded on the fiction that the
wrong of the servant is the wrong of the master, from which the
conclusion was drawn that the master must be liable because no
man shall be allowed to make any advantage of his own wrong;
and sometimes on the ground that the master who chooses a
careless servant is liable for making a careless choice.
Blackstone gives all these reasons for this principle. In addition,
he deals with the totally different case where a master has
actually authorised the commission of a tort; and cites most of
the mediaeval cases of vicarious liability with the special reasons
for each of them. It is not surprising that he should take refuge
in the maxim ‘qui facit per alium facit per se’ or that others
should have used in a similar way the maxim ‘respondeat Page 7
superior’. His treatment of the matter illustrates the confusion of
the authorities; and it is noteworthy that he does not allude to the
true reason for the rule - the reason of public policy - which Holt
CJ, gave in Hern v Nichols and in Wayland’s Case.”
18. In Barwick v English Joint Stock Bank (1867) 2 LR Exch 259, 265, Willes J
described it as settled since Lord Holt’s time that a principal is answerable for the
act of an agent in the course of his business, but it was argued in that case (despite
the decision in Hern v Nichols) that a principal was not liable for a fraudulent act of
his agent. Willes J rejected that argument, holding that “no sensible distinction can
be drawn between the case of fraud and the case of any other wrong”. He cited
authorities in which the doctrine had been applied, for example, in cases of direct
trespass to goods and false imprisonment, and he observed (at p 266):
“In all these cases it may be said, as it was said here, that the
master has not authorized the act. It is true, he has not
authorized the particular act, but he has put the agent in his
place to do that class of acts, and he must be answerable for the
manner in which the agent has conducted himself in doing the
business which it was the act of his master to place him in.”
19. His judgment gave rise to difficulties of a different kind because it included
the following statement (at p 265):
“The general rule is, that the master is answerable for every
such wrong of the servant or agent as is committed in the course
of the service and for the master’s benefit, though no express
command or privity of the master be proved.” (Emphasis
added.)
20. The words in italics were used in later cases to support the argument that in
order to establish vicarious liability it was necessary to show that the employee’s
misdeed was committed for the employer’s benefit. This argument was rejected by
the House of Lords in the landmark case of Lloyd v Grace, Smith & Co [1912] AC
716. A solicitor’s clerk, who was entrusted by the defendant firm with managing its
conveyancing department, defrauded the plaintiff, who had come to the firm for
advice about two properties left to her by her late husband. He advised her to sell
and procured her signature on documents conveying the properties to himself, which
he disposed of for his own benefit. It was held that the firm was liable for his fraud.
Lord Macnaghten, who gave the leading judgment (with which Lord Loreburn LC
and Lord Atkinson agreed) and Lord Halsbury both referred with approval to the
general principle enunciated by Lord Holt (pp 726-727 and 732).Page 8
21. Lord Macnaghten, at pp 735-736, also endorsed Lord Blackburn’s
interpretation of Barwick’s case in Houldsworth v City of Glasgow Bank (1880) 5
App Cas 317, 339, namely that the substantial point decided in that case was that
“an innocent principal was civilly responsible for the fraud of his authorised agent,
acting within his authority, to the same extent as if it was his own fraud”.
22. Lord Macnaghten recognised the difficulty of trying to give a precise
meaning to the expression “within his authority”. He referred at pp 732-734 to the
discussion of the subject by Sir Montague Smith in Mackay v Commercial Bank of
New Brunswick (1874) LR 5 PC 394, 410, who observed that since it may be
generally assumed that, in mercantile transactions, principals do not authorise their
agents to act fraudulently, frauds are beyond the agent’s authority in the narrowest
sense of which the expression admits; but that so narrow a sense would be opposed
to justice and so a wider construction had been put on the words, and that it was
difficult to define how far it went. Lord Macnaghten (at p 736) agreed that what is
meant by the expressions “acting within his authority”, “acting in the course of his
employment” and “acting within the scope of his agency” (as applied to an agent) is
not easy to define, but he said that whichever expression is used, it must be construed
liberally.
23. Lord Macnaghten noted that it was within the scope of the clerk’s
employment to advise clients regarding the best way to sell property and the
execution of any necessary documents. He concluded that the clerk was therefore
acting within the scope of his employment. Lord Macnaghten also made the broader
point that it would be unjust if the firm were not held liable. The clerk was its
“accredited representative”: p 738. It was right that the loss from his fraud should
be suffered by the person who placed him in that position rather than the client who
dealt with him as the firm’s representative.
24. Although taking properties from the plaintiff was far removed from what the
wrongdoer was employed to do, the justice of the decision is obvious. The
wrongdoer was trusted both by his firm and by its client. They were each innocent,
but one of them had to bear the loss, and it was right that it should be the employer
on the principle stated by Lord Holt in Hern v Nichols. The firm employed the
wrongdoer and placed him in a position to deal with the claimant; he abused that
position and took advantage of her. It was fairer that the firm should suffer for the
cheating by their employee than the client who was cheated.
25. In 1907 Salmond published the first edition of his text book on the Law of
Torts. He defined a wrongful act by a servant in the course of his employment as
“either (a) a wrongful act authorised by the master or (b) a wrongful and
unauthorised mode of doing some act authorised by the master”, with the
amplification that a master is liable for acts which he has not authorised if they are Page 9
“so connected with acts which he has authorised, that they may rightly be regarded
as modes - although improper modes - of doing them” (pp 83-84).
26. Salmond’s formula, repeated in later editions, was cited and applied in many
cases, sometimes by stretching it artificially; but even with stretching, it was not
universally satisfactory. The difficulties in its application were particularly evident
in cases of injury to persons or property caused by an employee’s deliberate act of
misconduct.
27. In Petterson v Royal Oak Hotel Ltd [1948] NZLR 136 a barman refused to
serve a drunken customer with more alcohol. As the customer was on his way out
of the premises, he threw a glass at the barman which broke in pieces at his feet. The
barman picked up a piece of the broken glass and threw it back at the departing
customer, but missed him and injured the eye of another customer, who sued for
damages. The trial judge found that the barman threw the piece of glass “not in order
to expedite the departure of the troublesome customer, but as an expression of his
personal resentment at the glass being thrown at him”. He found for the claimant
and his judgment was upheld by the Court of Appeal.
28. The Salmond formula was cited in argument. The Court of Appeal held that
the barman’s act was an improper mode of doing his job of keeping order in the bar
and avoiding altercations, although at the time the customer was leaving. The justice
of the result is obvious. The claimant was struck in the eye by a piece of glass thrown
by the barman who was on duty, and there would be something wrong with the law
if he was not entitled to compensation from the company which employed the
barman. A barman needs to be capable of acting with restraint under provocation,
for the safety of other customers, and if the proprietor engaged someone who was
incapable of doing so and who injured an innocent customer, it would be wrong for
the customer to be left with his only remedy against the barman. But to rationalise
the result by describing the barman’s loss of temper and act of retaliation as a mode,
but improper mode, of keeping order and avoiding altercation is an unnatural use of
words.
29. Deatons Pty Ltd v Flew (1949) 79 CLR 370 had similarities to Petterson but
was decided differently. According to the jury’s verdict, the claimant was the victim
of an unprovoked attack by a barmaid on duty in a hotel when he asked her for the
manager. She threw a glass of beer over him and then threw the glass in his face,
causing him the loss of sight in one eye. The High Court of Australia held that there
was no basis for finding that the barmaid was acting in the course of her
employment. They rejected the argument that her conduct was incidental to her
employment in that it was a method, though an improper method, of responding to
an inquiry from a customer. They also rejected the argument, which had succeeded
in Petterson, that her conduct was an improper mode of keeping order. Dixon J gave Page 10
two reasons: first, that she did not throw the glass in the course of keeping discipline,
and secondly, that she was not in charge of the bar, but was working under the
supervision of another woman.
30. I agree that it was tortuous and artificial to describe the barmaid’s conduct as
a mode of performing what she was employed to do, but that does not make the
result just. In a broader sense it occurred in the course of her employment. She was
employed by the hotel proprietor to serve customers. She was approached in that
capacity by a customer, and ordinary members of the public would surely expect the
company who employed her to serve customers to have some responsibility for her
conduct towards them. And it surely cannot be right that the measure of the
company’s responsibility should depend on whether she was the head barmaid or an
assistant. The customer would have no knowledge what were the exact limits of her
responsibilities.
31. In Warren v Henlys Ltd [1948] 2 All ER 935 a customer at a petrol station
had an angry confrontation with the petrol station attendant, who wrongly suspected
him of trying to make off without payment. The customer became enraged at the
manner in which he was spoken to by the attendant. After paying for the petrol, the
customer saw a passing police car and drove off after it. He complained to the police
officer about the attendant’s conduct and persuaded the officer to return with him to
the petrol station. The officer listened to both men and indicated that he did not think
that it was a police matter, whereupon the customer said that he would report the
attendant to his employer. The officer was on the point of leaving, when the
attendant punched the customer in the face, knocking him to the ground.
32. Hilbery J held that the assault was not committed in the course of the
attendant’s employment, applying the Salmond formula. By the time that the assault
happened the customer’s business with the petrol station had ended, the petrol had
been paid for and the customer had left the premises. When he returned with the
police officer it was for the purpose of making a personal complaint about the
attendant. The attendant reacted violently to being told that the customer was going
to report him to his employer, but there was no basis for holding the employer
vicariously liable for that behaviour. The judge was right to dismiss the customer’s
claim against the petrol company. At the time of the incident the relationship
between the plaintiff and the attendant had changed from that of customer and
representative of the petrol company to that of a person making a complaint to the
police and the subject of the complaint. In Lister v Hesley Hall Ltd [2002] 1 AC 215
Lord Millett commented, at para 80, that “the better view may have been that the
employer was not liable because it was no part of the duties of the pump attendant
to keep order”, but there is no suggestion in the report of the case that there was any
other employee in practical charge of the forecourt and cash desk area. If the
attendant had punched the customer because he believed, rightly or wrongly, that Page 11
the customer was leaving without payment, I would regard such conduct as
occurring within the course of his employment.
33. In Keppel Bus Co Ltd v Ahmad [1974] 1 WLR 1082 the plaintiff was
travelling in a bus when the conductor treated an elderly lady passenger in a highhanded
and rude fashion. The plaintiff remonstrated with him. An altercation
followed in which each tried to hit the other. They were separated by the passengers,
but the conductor struck the plaintiff in the eye with his ticket punch, causing loss
of sight in the eye. The trial judge and the Singapore Court of Appeal held that the
bus company was vicariously liable, but the Privy Council decided otherwise.
34. The Board applied the Salmond formula. It held that the conductor’s conduct
could not be described as a wrong mode of performing the work which he was
expressly or impliedly authorised to do. He could not be described as maintaining
order in the bus; if anyone was keeping order in the bus, it was the passengers. The
Board rejected the argument that his job could be described as “managing the bus”
and that his conduct arose out of his power and duty to do so. The case illustrates
again the awkwardness of the Salmond formula when applied to such situations.
Looked at more broadly, the bus company selected the conductor for employment
and put him in charge of the passenger area of the bus. He abused the position of
authority which his employment gave him. Because he was throwing his weight
around as the conductor, the plaintiff objected. Because the conductor objected to
what he appeared to regard as interference with the exercise of his authority, he
struck the plaintiff in the face. (The trial judge summarised it by saying that “He was
in effect telling the plaintiff by his act not to interfere with him in his due
performance of his duties”: p 1084.) In such circumstances it was just that the
passenger should be able to look to the company for compensation.
35. In two noteworthy cases the court took a broader approach to the question of
scope of employment. Their significance is enhanced by the fact that they were cited
with approval in Lister.
36. In Central Motors (Glasgow) Ltd v Cessnock Garage and Motor Co 1925 SC
796, 802, Lord Cullen said:
“The question is not to be answered merely by applying the test
whether the act in itself is one which the servant was authorised
or ordered or forbidden to do. The employer has to shoulder
responsibility on a wider basis; and he may, and often does,
become responsible to third parties for acts which he has
expressly or impliedly forbidden the servant to do. … It
remains necessary to the master’s responsibility that the Page 12
servant’s act be one done within the sphere of his service or the
scope of his employment, but it may have this character
although it consists in doing something which is the very
opposite of what the servant has been intended or ordered to
do, and which he does for his own private ends. An honest
master does not employ or authorise his servant to commit
crimes of dishonesty towards third parties; but nevertheless he
may incur liability for a crime of dishonesty committed by the
servant if it was committed by him within the field of activities
which the employment assigned to him, and that although the
crime was committed by the servant solely in pursuance of his
own private advantage.”
The expression “within the field of activities” assigned to the employee is helpful.
It conjures a wider range of conduct than acts done in furtherance of his
employment.
37. In Rose v Plenty [1976] 1 WLR 141 a milk roundsman paid a 13 year old boy
to help him collect and deliver milk bottles, in disregard of his employer’s rule
prohibiting children from being carried on milk floats. The boy was injured when
he fell off a milk float as a result of the employee’s negligent driving. The trial judge
dismissed the boy’s claim against the employer on the ground that the employee was
acting outside the scope of his employment and that the boy was a trespasser on the
float, but his decision was reversed by a majority of the Court of Appeal.
38. Lord Denning, MR dealt with the matter briefly, holding that in taking the
boy on the milk float the employee was still acting within the sphere of his
employment. Scarman LJ considered the point at greater length, at pp 147-148:
“In words which have frequently been quoted both in the courts
and in the universities, Salmond on Torts, 16th ed (1973), p
462, refers to the basis of vicarious liability for accidental
damage as being one of public policy. That view is supported
by quotations (dated no doubt, but still full of life) of a dictum
of Lord Brougham and of another, 100 years or more earlier,
of Sir John Holt. That it is “socially convenient and rough
justice” to make an employer liable for the torts of his servant
in the cases to which the principle applies, was recognised in
Limpus v London General Omnibus Co, 1 H & C 526; see the
judgment of Willes J at p 539. I think it important to realise that
the principle of vicarious liability is one of public policy. It is
not a principle which derives from a critical or refined
consideration of other concepts in the common law, for Page 13
example, the concept of trespass or indeed the concept of
agency. No doubt in particular cases it may be relevant to
consider whether a particular plaintiff was or was not a
trespasser. Similarly, when, as I shall indicate, it is important
that one should determine the course of employment of the
servant, the law of agency may have some marginal relevance.
But basically, as I understand it, the employer is made
vicariously liable for the tort of his employee not because the
plaintiff is an invitee, nor because of the authority possessed by
the servant, but because it is a case in which the employer,
having put matters into motion, should be liable if the motion
which he has originated leads to damage to another. What is
the approach which the cases identify as the correct approach
in order to determine this question of public policy? First, …
one looks to see whether the servant has committed a tort upon
the plaintiff … The next question … is whether the employer
should shoulder the liability for compensating the person
injured by the tort … [I]t does appear to me to be clear, since
the decision of Limpus v London General Omnibus Co, 1 H &
C 526, that that question has to be answered by directing
attention to what the servant was employed to do when he
committed the tort that has caused damage to the plaintiff. The
servant was, of course, employed at the time of the accident to
do a whole number of operations. He was certainly not
employed to give the boy a lift, and if one confines one’s
analysis of the facts to the incident of injury to the plaintiff,
then no doubt one would say that carrying the boy on the float
- giving him a lift - was not in the course of the servant’s
employment. But in Ilkiw v Samuels [1963] 1 WLR 991
Diplock LJ indicated that the proper approach to the nature of
the servant’s employment is a broad one. He says, at p 1004:
‘As each of these nouns implies’ - he is referring to the nouns
used to describe course of employment, sphere, scope and so
forth - ‘the matter must be looked at broadly, not dissecting the
servant’s task into its component activities - such as driving,
loading, sheeting and the like - by asking: what was the job on
which he was engaged for his employer? and answering that
question as a jury would’.”
Lister v Hesley Hall Ltd
39. In Lister the House of Lords was faced with the problem of the application
of the doctrine of vicarious liability to the warden of a school boarding house who
sexually abused the children in his care. The Salmond formula was stretched to Page 14
breaking point. Even on its most elastic interpretation, the sexual abuse of the
children could not be described as a mode, albeit an improper mode, of caring for
them. Drawing on Scarman LJ’s approach, Lord Steyn (with whom Lords Hutton
and Hobhouse agreed) spoke of the pitfalls of terminology and said that it was not
necessary to ask whether the acts of sexual abuse were modes of doing authorised
acts. He posed the broad question whether the warden’s torts was so closely
connected with his employment that it would be just to hold the employers liable.
He concluded that the employers were vicariously liable because they undertook the
care of the children through the warden and he abused them. There was therefore a
close connection between his employment and his tortious acts. To similar effect,
Lord Clyde said that the warden had a general duty to look after the children, and
the fact that he abused them did not sever the connection with his employment; his
acts had to be seen in the context that he was entrusted with responsibility for their
care, and it was right that his employers should be liable for the way in which he
behaved towards them as warden of the house.
40. In adopting the approach which he did, Lord Steyn referred to the judgment
of McLachlin J in Bazley v Curry (1999) 174 DLR (4th) 45. McLachlin J
summarised the public policy justification for imposing vicarious liability, at para
31, in a similar fashion to Holt and Scarman LJ:
“The employer puts in the community an enterprise which
carries with it certain risks. When those risks materialize and
cause injury to a member of the public despite the employer’s
reasonable efforts, it is fair that the person or organisation that
creates the enterprise and hence the risk should bear the loss.”
Compare Scarman LJ’s statement that “the employer, having put matters into
motion, should be liable if the motion which he has originated leads to damage to
another”. This thinking has been prominent in cases since Lister as the social
underpinning of the doctrine of vicarious liability, but the court is not required in
each case to conduct a retrospective assessment of the degree to which the employee
would have been considered to present a risk. As Immanuel Kant wrote, “Out of the
crooked timber of humanity, no straight thing was ever made.” The risk of an
employee misusing his position is one of life’s unavoidable facts.
41. In Dubai Aluminium Co Ltd v Salaam [2002] UKHL 48; [2003] 2 AC 366,
the House of Lords applied the Lister approach to vicarious liability in a case of
commercial fraud. Lord Nicholls (with whom Lords Slynn and Hutton agreed) said:
“22. … [I]t is a fact of life, and therefore to be expected by
those who carry on businesses, that sometimes their agents may Page 15
exceed the bounds of their authority or even defy express
instructions. It is fair to allocate risk of losses thus arising to
the businesses rather than leave those wronged with the sole
remedy, of doubtful value, against the individual employee
who committed the wrong. To this end, the law has given the
concept of ‘ordinary course of employment’ an extended scope.
23. If, then, authority is not the touchstone, what is? ...
Perhaps the best general answer is that the wrongful conduct
must be so closely connected with acts the partner or employee
was authorised to do that, for the purpose of the liability of the
firm or the employer to third parties, the wrongful act may
fairly and properly be regarded as done by the partner while
acting in the ordinary course of the firm’s business or the
employee’s employment … (Original emphasis)
25. This ‘close connection’ test focuses attention in the right
direction. But it affords no guidance on the type or degree of
connection which will normally be regarded as sufficiently
close to prompt the legal conclusion that the risk of the
wrongful act occurring, and any loss flowing from the wrongful
act, should fall on the firm or employer rather than the third
party who was wronged. …
26. This lack of precision is inevitable, given the infinite
range of circumstances where the issue arises. The crucial
feature or features, either producing or negativing vicarious
liability, vary widely from one case or type of case to the next.
Essentially the court makes an evaluative judgment in each
case, having regard to all the circumstances and, importantly,
having regard to the assistance provided by previous court
decisions.”
42. The “close connection” test adumbrated in Lister and Dubai Aluminium has
been followed in a line of later cases including several at the highest level: Bernard
v Attorney General of Jamaica [2004] UKPC 47; [2005] IRLR 398, Brown v
Robinson [2004] UKPC 56, Majrowski v Guy’s and St Thomas’s NHS Trust [2006]
UKHL 34; [2007] 1 AC 224 and Various Claimants v Catholic Child Welfare
Society [2012] UKHL 56; [2013] 2 AC 1 (“the Christian Brothers case”).
43. In the Christian Brothers case Lord Phillips of Worth Matravers said at para
74 that it is not easy to deduce from Lister the precise criteria that will give rise to Page 16
vicarious liability for sexual abuse (or, he might have added, other abuse), and that
the test of “close connection” tells one nothing about the nature of the connection.
However, in Lister the court was mindful of the risk of over-concentration on a
particular form of terminology, and there is a similar risk in attempting to overrefine,
or lay down a list of criteria for determining, what precisely amounts to a
sufficiently close connection to make it just for the employer to be held vicariously
liable. Simplification of the essence is more desirable.
The present law
44. In the simplest terms, the court has to consider two matters. The first question
is what functions or “field of activities” have been entrusted by the employer to the
employee, or, in everyday language, what was the nature of his job. As has been
emphasised in several cases, this question must be addressed broadly; see in
particular the passage in Diplock LJ’s judgment in Ilkiw v Samuels [1963] 1 WLR
991, 1004 included in the citation from Rose v Plenty at para 38 above, and cited
also in Lister by Lord Steyn at para 20, Lord Clyde at para 42, Lord Hobhouse at
para 58 and Lord Millett at para 77.
45. Secondly, the court must decide whether there was sufficient connection
between the position in which he was employed and his wrongful conduct to make
it right for the employer to be held liable under the principle of social justice which
goes back to Holt. To try to measure the closeness of connection, as it were, on a
scale of 1 to 10, would be a forlorn exercise and, what is more, it would miss the
point. The cases in which the necessary connection has been found for Holt’s
principle to be applied are cases in which the employee used or misused the position
entrusted to him in a way which injured the third party. Lloyd v Grace, Smith & Co,
Peterson and Lister were all cases in which the employee misused his position in a
way which injured the claimant, and that is the reason why it was just that the
employer who selected him and put him in that position should be held responsible.
By contrast, in Warren v Henlys Ltd any misbehaviour by the petrol pump attendant,
qua petrol pump attendant, was past history by the time that he assaulted the
claimant. The claimant had in the meantime left the scene, and the context in which
the assault occurred was that he had returned with the police officer to pursue a
complaint against the attendant.
46. Contrary to the primary submission advanced on the claimant’s behalf, I am
not persuaded that there is anything wrong with the Lister approach as such. It has
been affirmed many times and I do not see that the law would now be improved by
a change of vocabulary. Indeed, the more the argument developed, the less clear it
became whether the claimant was advocating a different approach as a matter of
substance and, if so, what the difference of substance was.Page 17
The present case
47. In the present case it was Mr Khan’s job to attend to customers and to respond
to their inquiries. His conduct in answering the claimant’s request in a foul mouthed
way and ordering him to leave was inexcusable but within the “field of activities”
assigned to him. What happened thereafter was an unbroken sequence of events. It
was argued by the respondent and accepted by the judge that there ceased to be any
significant connection between Mr Khan’s employment and his behaviour towards
the claimant when he came out from behind the counter and followed the claimant
onto the forecourt. I disagree for two reasons. First, I do not consider that it is right
to regard him as having metaphorically taken off his uniform the moment he stepped
from behind the counter. He was following up on what he had said to the claimant.
It was a seamless episode. Secondly, when Mr Khan followed the claimant back to
his car and opened the front passenger door, he again told the claimant in threatening
words that he was never to come back to the petrol station. This was not something
personal between them; it was an order to keep away from his employer’s premises,
which he reinforced by violence. In giving such an order he was purporting to act
about his employer’s business. It was a gross abuse of his position, but it was in
connection with the business in which he was employed to serve customers. His
employers entrusted him with that position and it is just that as between them and
the claimant, they should be held responsible for their employee’s abuse of it.
48. Mr Khan’s motive is irrelevant. It looks obvious that he was motivated by
personal racism rather than a desire to benefit his employer’s business, but that is
neither here nor there.
49. I would allow the appeal.
LORD DYSON:
50. As Lord Toulson has explained, the test for holding an employer vicariously
liable for the tort of his employee has troubled the courts for many years. The “close
connection” test (whether the employee’s tort is so closely connected with his
employment that it would be just to hold the employer liable) was first articulated
in this jurisdiction by the House of Lords in Lister v Hesley Hall Ltd [2002] 1 AC
215. It has been subsequently followed in many cases, including several at the
highest level: see para 42 above. As Lord Nicholls said in Dubai Aluminium Co Ltd
v Salaam [2002] UKHL 48; [2003] 2 AC 366, para 26, the test is imprecise, but that
is inevitable given the infinite range of circumstances where the issue of vicarious
liability arises. The court, he said, has to make an evaluative judgment in each case,
having regard to all the circumstances and to the assistance provided by previous
court decisions on the facts of other cases.Page 18
51. The appellant in his application for permission to appeal in the present case
argued that this court should reformulate the close connection test. In his written
case, he submitted that it should be refined or replaced altogether “in order to reflect
modern views of justice; to advance the doctrine’s underlying policy considerations
[underlying vicarious liability]; and to set clearer and less arbitrary boundaries”.
52. Accordingly, he submitted that the test for vicarious liability should be
whether the employee (described as an “authorised representative” of the employer)
commits the tort in circumstances where the reasonable observer would consider the
employee to be acting in that representative capacity.
53. The close connection test has now been repeatedly applied by our courts for
some 13 years. In my view, it should only be abrogated or refined if a demonstrably
better test can be devised. Far from being demonstrably better, the proposed new
test is hopelessly vague. What does “representative capacity” mean in this context?
And by what criteria is the court to determine the circumstances in which the
reasonable observer would consider the employee to be acting in a representative
capacity? I do not see how this test is more precise than the close connection test or
how it better reflects modern views of justice. The attraction of the close connection
test is that it is firmly rooted in justice. It asks whether the employee’s tort is so
closely connected with his employment as to make it just to hold the employer liable.
54. It is true that the test is imprecise. But this is an area of the law in which, as
Lord Nicholls said, imprecision is inevitable. To search for certainty and precision
in vicarious liability is to undertake a quest for a chimaera. Many aspects of the law
of torts are inherently imprecise. For example, the imprecise concepts of fairness,
justice and reasonableness are central to the law of negligence. The test for the
existence of a duty of care is whether it is fair, just and reasonable to impose such a
duty. The test for remoteness of loss is one of reasonable foreseeability. Questions
such as whether to impose a duty of care and whether loss is recoverable are not
always easy to answer because they are imprecise. But these tests are now well
established in our law. To adopt the words of Lord Nicholls, the court has to make
an evaluative judgment in each case having regard to all the circumstances and
having regard to the assistance provided by previous decisions on the facts of other
cases.
55. In Various Claimants v Catholic Child Welfare Society [2012] UKSC 56;
[2013] 2 AC 1 Lord Phillips said at para 19 “the law of vicarious liability is on the
move”. It is true that there have been developments in the law as to the type of
relationship that has to exist between an individual and a defendant for vicarious
liability to be imposed on the defendant in respect of a tort committed by that
individual. These developments have been a response to changes in the legal
relationships between enterprises and members of their workforces and the Page 19
increasing complexity and sophistication of the organisation of enterprises in the
modern world. A good example is provided by the facts of the Catholic Child
Welfare Society case itself.
56. But there is no need for the law governing the circumstances in which an
employer should be held vicariously liable for a tort committed by his employee to
be on the move. There have been no changes in societal conditions which require
such a development. The changes in the case law relating to the definition of the
circumstances in which an employer is vicariously liable for the tort of his employee
have not been made in response to changing social conditions. Rather they have
been prompted by the aim of producing a fairer and more workable test.
Unsurprisingly, this basic aim has remained constant. The Salmond test defined a
wrongful act by a servant in the course of his employment as “either (a) a wrongful
act authorised by the master or (b) a wrongful and unauthorised mode of doing some
act authorised by the master”: Salmond, Law of Torts, 1st ed (1907), p 83; and
Salmond & Heuston on the Law of Torts, 21st ed (1996), p 443. As Lord Steyn said
in Lister at para 20, this was “simply a practical test serving as a dividing line
between cases where it is or is not just to impose vicarious liability” (emphasis
added). The importance of Lister (and the Canadian case of Bazley v Curry (1999)
174 DLR (4th) 45 whose reasoning it adopted) is that it recognised the difficulty
created by the second limb of the Salmond test. This was not effective for
determining the circumstances in which it was just to hold an employer vicariously
liable for committing an act not authorised by the employer. The close connection
test was introduced in order to remedy this shortcoming. This improvement was
achieved by the simple expedient of explicitly incorporating the concept of justice
into the close connection test. The new test was, therefore, by definition more
effective than the Salmond test for determining the circumstances in which it is just
to hold an employer vicariously liable for the unauthorised acts of his employee. It
is difficult to see how the close connection test might be further refined. It is
sufficient to say that no satisfactory refinement of the test has been suggested in the
present case.
57. As regards the facts of the present case, I agree with the analysis of Lord
Toulson and the reasons he gives at paras 47 and 48 for holding that the defendants
are liable for the assault committed by Mr Khan.
58. For these reasons as well as those given by Lord Toulson, I would allow this
appeal.
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